The year 1812 was the year of Napoleon Bonaparte's zenith. France had achieved unprecedented power in Europe. Over the past decade, Napoleon had created an empire and ruled over 64 million people. The coalition of forces against him that included Russia, Prussia and Austria were now as likely to fight each other rather than France. Poland, the historic thorn in the side of Russia, and still regarded by the the Russian Tsar Alexander I as a threat, was now an enthusiastic ally of France. Bonaparte's domination of the European continent made life extremely difficult for Great Britain. Trade with Europe was effectively embargoed. This embargo was also ruinous for Russia who, instigated by France, participated in it. But Russia needed trade with Britain, and in 1812 reopened trade.
Napoleon dreamed of crushing the mighty British Empire, and felt that if the Russians were subjugated, this could be accomplished. At the least, it would be economically difficult for Britain to continue to oppose him. This would provide security for him in his quest for ensuring France's place in the world as well as his own succession.
So, with the aid of Poles, some Germans, Portuguese, Spanish, Italians and Austrians "either by fear or favor", he made his plans to attack Russia.
Bonaparte's Grand Armee now numbering some 600,000 men (270,000 French) massed on the Niemen River in Poland on the Russian frontier. The main central column which consisted of 286,000 men would be led by Napoleon himself.
In June 1812, the invasion began.
Napoleon wanted to catch the Russian army out in the open where it could be annihilated, but the French supply situation was such that supplies had to come from nearly 600 miles away, and these supply lines were vulnerable to attack.
And attacked they were, causing Napoleon not only severe logistical difficulties but also a serious depletion of his forces.
Also frustrating to Napoleon, was the defensive strategy of the Russian Commander in Chief Count Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly. Tolly initiated a "scorched earth" policy, burning or destroying anything that could be of any use to the French, while avoiding a major battle. The French, their lengthy supply lines under interdiction, and unable to live off the land began dying in droves from starvation and disease.
But many of Tolly's subordinates considered such a strategy cowardly and complained to Tsar Alexander I. Tolly was also considered to be "not Russian enough" by many, as he was a descendant of a Scottish family that had been admitted into the Russian aristocracy. The Tsar finally gave in to these protests and appointed Prince Mikhail Kutuzov to replace Tolly. Because of Tolly's previous distinguished service, he was retained as the commander of the right wing of Kutuzov's army.
Kutuzov, however was unable to sufficiently organize his forces and establish a defensive position, so the retreat continued.
But by early September, as the retreat ground closer and closer to Moscow, the ratio of French to Russian forces improved (for the Russians) from 3:1 to 5:4 due to the depletion of French forces. If Kutuzov could find a good defensive position, perhaps he could engage Bonaparte and defeat him.
He found it near the village of Borodino. It was the best defensible position before Moscow itself.
Kutuzov was able to construct earthworks and redoubts to strengthen this line.
One of these, the Shevardino Redoubt was at the southern end of the Russian line. In a brief prelude to the main battle, the French overran this position on September 5th.
The Russian position at Borodino consisted of a disconnected series of earthworks anchored on the north by the Moskva River. It partially followed its tributary the Kolocha with its step banks south to the village of Ulitza which was now the southern flank. Thick woods interspersed along the center and Russian left flanks on the French side of the river made it difficult for the French to organize their forces.
The Russian center was dominated by the Raevsky Redoubt. This position was a massive earthwork containing 19 12-pounder cannon with clear fields of fire all the way to the Kolocha stream.
The Russian forces totaled almost 104,000 men with 637 artillery pieces, while the French fielded 124,000 men with 587 pieces of artillery.
Kutuzov placed his powerful 1st Army under Barclay on the Russian right. His plan was to cross the Kolocha north of Borodino and roll up the French left flank. The problem, however, was that with the fall of the Shevardino Redoubt, his left flank was now unanchored and "up in the air". Kutuzov's subordinates wanted him to adjust his forces to compensate for this weakness, but he refused.
Thus, Kutuzov's best troops and many of his guns would be far out of position if Napoleon chose to exploit his advantage and attack first.
That is what happened. Instead of fighting an offensive battle, Kutuzov ended up fighting a defensive one.
But Napoleon was not at his best that day. Instead of exploiting the weakness on the now exposed Russian left flank, he chose to mass his forces for a direct frontal assault into the teeth of the Russian defense.
At 6:00am on September 7th, Bonaparte unleashed his assault. It began with a 102 gun bombardment of the Russian center.
South of the Raevsky Redoubt, on the left side of the Russian line was a series of arrow-shaped earthworks known as the Bagration Fleches (Fleche literally meaning "arrow".) These fleches were supported by artillery sited on nearby heights. This is where Napoleon chose to begin his infantry assault.
When the French infantry exited the woods on the far bank of the Kolocha, they were greeted by massed Russian artillery fire. After taking many casualties, the French did manage to take initial control of the fleches. But the Russians counterattacked when reinforcements from Barclay de Tolly's army arrived to assist. The Russian commander in this area bypassed Kutuzov and personally asked Tolly for these reinforcements.
The fighting was exceptionally confused. The smoke was so thick and impenetrable, that units from both sides marched headlong into massed cannon and musket fire and were smashed. The carnage was huge even under Napoleonic standards.
In this environment, Tolly's reinforcements were savaged by French artillery. By 11:30 the Russians began falling back in confusion. They were ripe for the taking. But the French commanders on the spot in the dust, smoke and confusion initially failed to appreciate this, and Napoleon, who had a cold, was too far back from the front to observe events. When these commanders on the spot appreciated the situation, they went to Napoleon for reinforcements to exploit the Russian retreat from this area.
But the only reinforcements in this area available were the reserves of the Imperial Guard. Napoleon, protective of the Guard so far from home, refused to release them. So a potential opportunity to end the battle right then and there was lost.
On the French left, an infantry corps was able to take the village of Borodino. Turning south, they began pushing the Russians back toward the Raevsky Redoubt. The redoubt changed hands back and forth, and Barclay de Tolly was again forced to lend a hand. When he brought up troops against an advancing French brigade, he later described it as a "walk into Hell" so terrible was the fighting.
At the height of the battle for the redoubt, the Russian artillery commander was killed resulting in many batteries of guns sitting silent for lack of orders. Kutuzov himself seemed to be in a trance, his subordinates having to take control of the battle.
Meanwhile, as the Russian cannon sat helpless not firing a shot, the French cannon wrecked havoc on the Russians.
French cavalry now assaulted the rear of the Raevsky Redoubt. Russian efforts to break up this attack with their own cavalry were broken up by savage French artillery fire.
The redoubt was now in the hands of the French. The battle had all but ended, but both sides were now so exhausted that only the artillery was firing.
Bonaparte finally bestirred himself and visited the front after the fall of the redoubt, but once again refused to commit his Imperial Guard. At 4:00pm the battle was over.
The Russians suffered between 39,000 - 45,000 casualties, and the French between 30,000 - 35,000 dead, wounded, missing or captured. For the French, suffering a wound on the battlefield was effectively a death sentence as they, because of their supply situation had no means to supply the healthy, let alone the means to attend to the wounded.
Kutuzov now retreated his army past Moscow, leaving the city to Napoleon. Napoleon would sit there waiting for a Russian surrender that would never come.
He was to wait too long.
Napoleon had won the battle of Borodino, but it lead to the destruction of his army that winter when he was eventually forced to retreat from Moscow.
